सनातन धाम Learning Centres Gyan Jyotish Panchang Yatra Vivah Pooja SSEB
Source desk Sign in

The rishis — the world's first educators

Sanatan knowledge was written down, taught in schools, argued over in commentaries, and carried away by people who came here to study. What happened afterwards is not in dispute: the knowledge kept travelling and the names of the people who produced it stopped being taught. This page puts those names back, one stream at a time.

What we claim, exactly: this is a conversion of a knowledge system, not an invention of one. We do not claim the modern discoveries built on top of it. We show what was written first, when, in which text, and on whose authority — and where we cannot prove it yet, this page says so instead of guessing.
31KNOWLEDGE STREAMS
31WITH A NAMED SANSKRIT TEXT
30WITH A NAMED PERSON
30WITH A DATE
0WITH A MODERN REFERENCE

0 of 31 streams answer all four — who, when, which text, on whose authority. The rest are being sourced at the source desk, where only a human may mark a chain verified.

Timeline & pathway By era, person and category

The timeline — who contributed what, and when

45 records, oldest first. 41 name a Sanskrit work. 0 have the manuscript itself uploaded — that library is still to come. A title is never assumed: Rishi is used only for figures the tradition identifies that way, and later mathematicians, physicians, grammarians and astronomers are shown as acharya, author or as the tradition they belong to.

Everyone Rishi / Maharishi · 2 Acharya · 4 Author · 22 Knowledge tradition · 17
ancient / date disputed Disputed

Agnivesa Author

Author of the Agnivesa Tantra Field: Medicine Agnivesa Tantra The Carakasamhita is described as a redacted form of the Agnivesa Tantra Source: Ministry of AYUSH Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 600-400 BCE Probable

Panini Author

Grammarian Field: Linguistics, grammar Astadhyayi A highly formal grammatical system Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 5th-4th century BCE Probable

Katyayana Author

Grammarian Field: Grammar, linguistic analysis Varttikas on Panini Critical refinement of Paninian grammar Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 2nd century BCE Probable

Patanjali - Mahabhasya Author

Grammarian Field: Grammar Mahabhasya Systematic grammatical commentary and linguistic analysis Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 2nd century BCE - early CE / disputed Disputed

Jaimini Author

Mimamsa Field: Philosophy, hermeneutics Mimamsasutra Interpretation, textual reasoning, epistemology Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 505-587 CE Reasonably established

Varahamihira Author

Astronomer Field: Astronomy, astrology, natural observation Pancasiddhantika, Brhatsamhita, Brhajjataka Synthesis of astronomical traditions; astronomy, calendrics and natural phenomena Manuscript not uploaded yet
598-668 CE Reasonably established

Brahmagupta Author

Mathematician and astronomer Field: Mathematics, astronomy Brahmasphutasiddhanta Arithmetic, zero, negative numbers, algebra, geometry and astronomy Source: Government Sanskrit Department (sanskrit.nic.in) Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 6th century CE Probable

Bhaskara I Author

Mathematician and astronomer Field: Mathematics, astronomy Aryabhatiyabhasya, Mahabhaskariya Development and explanation of Aryabhata's mathematics and astronomy Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 7th century CE Probable

Bhamaha Author

Poetician Field: Literary theory Kavyalankara Systematic study of literary form and figures Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 7th century CE Probable

Dandin Author

Poetician Field: Literature, aesthetics Kavyadarsa Poetics and literary theory Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 8th century CE Probable

Lalla Author

Astronomer Field: Astronomy Sisyadhivrddhidatantra Astronomical computation Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 10th-11th century CE Probable

Surapala Author

Author on plants Field: Botany, agriculture Vrksayurveda Plant cultivation, plant care and medicinal plants Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 11th century CE Probable

Bhoja Author

Author on architecture and aesthetics Field: Architecture, arts, aesthetics Samaranganasutradhara, Sarasvatikanthabharana Architecture, construction, arts and aesthetics Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 12th century CE Probable

Sarngadhara Author

Author on pharmacy Field: Medicine, pharmacy Sarngadharasamhita Pharmaceutical preparations and Ayurvedic practice Source: Ministry of AYUSH Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 13th-14th century CE Probable

Madhava of Sangamagrama Author

Mathematician and astronomer Field: Mathematics, astronomy Works and the later Kerala mathematical tradition Infinite series and advanced trigonometric mathematics Source: Vedic Heritage Portal (vedicheritage.gov.in) Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 14th-15th century CE Probable

Paramesvara Author

Astronomer Field: Astronomy Drgganita and other works Observational astronomy and computational refinement Source: Vedic Heritage Portal (vedicheritage.gov.in) Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 15th-16th century CE Probable

Nilakantha Somayaji Author

Astronomer and mathematician Field: Astronomy, mathematics Tantrasangraha Planetary models and mathematical astronomy Source: Vedic Heritage Portal (vedicheritage.gov.in) Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 16th century CE Probable

Ganesa Daivajna Author

Astronomer Field: Astronomy Grahalaghava Astronomical computation and calendrical methods Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 16th century CE Probable

Jyesthadeva Author

Mathematician Field: Mathematics Yuktibhasa Detailed mathematical demonstrations and Kerala-school mathematics Source: Vedic Heritage Portal (vedicheritage.gov.in) Manuscript not uploaded yet
date not established Unknown

Bhavamisra Author

Author on medicine Field: Medicine No Sanskrit work recorded on this row Final step in the Ayurvedic transmission chain as given by the Ministry of AYUSH Source: Ministry of AYUSH Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 17th century CE Probable

Narayana Pandita Author

Mathematician Field: Mathematics Ganitakaumudi, Bijaganitavatamsa Combinatorics, arithmetic and algebra Manuscript not uploaded yet
c. 17th century CE Probable

Kamalakara Author

Astronomer Field: Astronomy Siddhantatattvaviveka Astronomical computation and siddhanta refinement Manuscript not uploaded yet

Transmission chains — knowledge handed on, not invented once

The honest shape of the record. Caraka did not invent medicine; the Atreya–Agnivesa–Caraka tradition produced the Carakasamhita.

Astronomy and mathematics

Vedic Rsi tradition - astronomy and number c. 1500-1200 BCE or earlier · Rgveda and other Vedic Samhitas
↓
Lagadha tradition c. 800-400 BCE · Vedanga Jyotisa
↓
Siddhanta astronomical tradition c. 3rd century CE onward · Suryasiddhanta
↓
Aryabhata 476-550 CE · Aryabhatiya
↓
Varahamihira c. 505-587 CE · Pancasiddhantika, Brhatsamhita, Brhajjataka
↓
Bhaskara I c. 6th century CE · Aryabhatiyabhasya, Mahabhaskariya
↓
Brahmagupta 598-668 CE · Brahmasphutasiddhanta
↓
Lalla c. 8th century CE · Sisyadhivrddhidatantra
↓
Mahaviracarya c. 850 CE · Ganitasarasangraha
↓
Bhaskaracarya II 1114-c. 1185 CE · Siddhantasiromani, Lilavati, Bijaganita
↓
Madhava of Sangamagrama c. 13th-14th century CE · Works and the later Kerala mathematical tradition
↓
Paramesvara c. 14th-15th century CE · Drgganita and other works
↓
Nilakantha Somayaji c. 15th-16th century CE · Tantrasangraha
↓
Jyesthadeva c. 16th century CE · Yuktibhasa
↓
Continuing Sanskrit mathematical and astronomical traditions 18th-19th century CE · Various siddhanta and regional works

Medicine and surgery

Dhanvantari tradition ancient / date disputed
↓
Atreya ancient / date disputed
↓
Agnivesa ancient / date disputed · Agnivesa Tantra
↓
Atreya-Agnivesa-Caraka tradition ancient / date disputed · Carakasamhita
↓
Dhanvantari-Susruta tradition ancient / date disputed · Susrutasamhita
↓
Vagbhata tradition c. 6th-7th century CE · Astangasangraha, Astangahrdaya
↓
Madhava tradition - medicine date disputed
↓
Sarngadhara c. 12th century CE · Sarngadharasamhita
↓
Bhavamisra date not established

The pathway — from the Sanskrit text to the modern subject

All streams Mathematics Trigonometry Physics Chemistry Biology and Botany Human biology, health and first aid Physical education and wellbeing Astronomy and Earth science Computer science and computational thinking Languages and grammar Economics, commerce and business studies Political science, civics and law Psychology and study of mind Philosophy, logic and critical thinking Environmental studies Agriculture Art, music, dance and drama Design, technology and engineering Ethics and values education Medicine and surgery (MBBS, MS) Pharmacy and pharmacology Engineering and architecture Law and jurisprudence Management, public administration and economics Linguistics and computational linguistics Mathematics and mathematical sciences Astronomy and astrophysics Psychology and cognitive science Philosophy Performing arts Agriculture and environmental science

Mathematics

Ganita — Pati-ganita (arithmetic), Bija-ganita (algebra), Kshetra-ganita (geometry) Evidence incomplete

1Written

Aryabhatiya Aryabhata — Acharya — mathematician and astronomer 499 CE · established Ganitapada 2.1–2.5 Pataliputra / Patna, Bihar

2Taught

Ganita — Pati-ganita (arithmetic), Bija-ganita (algebra), Kshetra-ganita (geometry) Commentary: Bhashya of Bhaskara I Gave a sine table, a value of pi accurate to four decimal places, and the kuttaka method for indeterminate equations.

3Today

Mathematics Decimal place value with zero as a number, with its rules of operation, is set out in the Aryabhatiya and in Brahmagupta’s Brahmasphuta Siddhanta. It is the arithmetic the whole world now uses. Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB · State

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Trigonometry

Jya-ganita, inside Jyotisha Evidence incomplete

1Written

Surya Siddhanta Bhaskaracharya — Mathematician and astronomer Twelfth century CE · established Vijjadavida

2Taught

Jya-ganita, inside Jyotisha Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Siddhanta Shiromani carries sine tables and spherical astronomy, and the Lilavati and Bijaganita treat arithmetic, algebra and indeterminate equations as a taught course.

3Today

Trigonometry The jya and utkrama-jya tables of the Surya Siddhanta and the Aryabhatiya are the origin of the sine function used in every science today. Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: probable

Physics

Vaisheshika and Nyaya natural philosophy; Shilpa for mechanics Evidence incomplete

1Written

Vaisheshika Sutra No verified person identified yet Not yet dated

2Taught

Vaisheshika and Nyaya natural philosophy; Shilpa for mechanics Commentary tradition not yet recorded

3Today

Physics Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB · State

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: Modern discipline, Sanatan perspective

Chemistry

Rasashastra Evidence incomplete

1Written

Rasaratna Samuccaya The Rasashastra tradition — Rasa authors and compilers; authorship not individual Date disputed; the texts are compilations of a longer tradition · disputed

2Taught

Rasashastra Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Rasaratna Samuccaya and the Rasarnava classify minerals and metals, describe furnaces and apparatus for distillation and sublimation, and set out purification, calcination and the making of alloys as repeatable procedures.

3Today

Chemistry Indian crucible steel was made and exported for centuries and could not be reproduced elsewhere until the modern era. Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB · State

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Biology and Botany

Vrikshayurveda and Ayurvedic dravyaguna Evidence incomplete

1Written

Vrikshayurveda of Surapala Surapala — Author of the Vrikshayurveda Date disputed; usually placed in the early medieval period · disputed

2Taught

Vrikshayurveda and Ayurvedic dravyaguna Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Vrikshayurveda classifies plants, and treats propagation and grafting, soil and manure, watering, plant disease and its treatment — plant science written as a practical manual.

3Today

Biology and Botany Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB · State

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Human biology, health and first aid

Ayurveda — Sharira (anatomy and physiology), Swasthavritta (public health) Evidence incomplete

1Written

Charaka Samhita Charaka — Physician Date disputed; the received text is a redaction of an older tradition · disputed

2Taught

Ayurveda — Sharira (anatomy and physiology), Swasthavritta (public health) Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Charaka Samhita sets out internal medicine, the examination of a patient, diet and daily and seasonal regimen, epidemiology of place and season, and the ethics required of a physician.

3Today

Human biology, health and first aid Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Physical education and wellbeing

Yoga and Vyayama; Dhanurveda for the martial tradition Evidence incomplete

1Written

Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra Patanjali — Compiler of the Yoga Sutra Date disputed · disputed

2Taught

Yoga and Vyayama; Dhanurveda for the martial tradition Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Yoga Sutra sets out the eight limbs, the training of attention, the states and obstacles of the mind, and the discipline by which practice is sustained — the framework yoga teaching still follows.

3Today

Physical education and wellbeing Yoga is now taught in schools, clinics and armies worldwide and has a United Nations day; the source texts are these. Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB · State

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Astronomy and Earth science

Jyotisha — Ganita and Gola (spherics) Evidence incomplete

1Written

Surya Siddhanta Varahamihira — Astronomer Sixth century CE · probable Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh

2Taught

Jyotisha — Ganita and Gola (spherics) Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Pancha Siddhantika reviews and compares five earlier astronomical systems — a survey of competing models, with their methods of computing planetary position and eclipse.

3Today

Astronomy and Earth science Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: probable

Computer science and computational thinking

Chandah-shastra (combinatorics and binary); Vyakarana (formal rules) Evidence incomplete

1Written

Pingala’s Chandah-shastra Pingala — Scholar of prosody Date disputed; placed in the last centuries BCE by most accounts · disputed

2Taught

Chandah-shastra (combinatorics and binary); Vyakarana (formal rules) Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Chandah-shastra enumerates metres as binary sequences and gives the halving algorithm, the counting of combinations and the triangle of binomial coefficients — the mathematics computing is built on.

3Today

Computer science and computational thinking Panini’s rule system — ordered rules, meta-rules and conflict resolution — is the structure on which formal grammars, compilers and language technology are built. Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Languages and grammar

Vyakarana, Nirukta (etymology), Shiksha (phonetics) Evidence incomplete

1Written

Ashtadhyayi Panini — Grammarian Mid-first millennium BCE · disputed Shalatura, Gandhara

2Taught

Vyakarana, Nirukta (etymology), Shiksha (phonetics) Commentary tradition not yet recorded Composed the Ashtadhyayi: a complete generative grammar of Sanskrit in about four thousand ordered rules, with meta-rules governing how rules apply and how conflicts between them are settled.

3Today

Languages and grammar The Pratishakhyas describe articulatory phonetics with a precision European linguistics reached only in the modern era. Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB · State

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Economics, commerce and business studies

Arthashastra Evidence incomplete

1Written

Arthashastra Kautilya — Political and economic thinker; minister Date disputed; the received text shows later redaction · disputed

2Taught

Arthashastra Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Arthashastra sets out revenue and taxation, price and market regulation, weights and measures, state accounts and audit, labour contracts, public works and the administration of trade routes.

3Today

Economics, commerce and business studies Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Political science, civics and law

Rajaniti and Dharmashastra Evidence incomplete

1Written

Arthashastra The Dharmashastra and Rajaniti traditions — Several jurists and political thinkers; no single figure Dates disputed and differing by text · disputed

2Taught

Rajaniti and Dharmashastra Commentary tradition not yet recorded Kautilya on the organs of the state, taxation and diplomacy; the Dharmashastra jurists on courts, evidence, contract and inheritance; the Shanti Parva on the duties and limits of a ruler.

3Today

Political science, civics and law Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Psychology and study of mind

Samkhya and Yoga Evidence incomplete

1Written

Samkhya Karika Ishvarakrishna — Author of the Samkhya Karika Date disputed; usually placed in the early centuries CE · disputed

2Taught

Samkhya and Yoga Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Samkhya Karika sets out the constituents of experience, the means of valid knowledge, the analysis of perception and error, and a systematic account of the mind and its faculties in seventy-two verses.

3Today

Psychology and study of mind Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · IGCSE · IB

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Philosophy, logic and critical thinking

Nyaya and Tarka; the six darshanas Evidence incomplete

1Written

Nyaya Sutra Gautama — Philosopher of the Nyaya school Date disputed; the sutras were added to over time · disputed

2Taught

Nyaya and Tarka; the six darshanas Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Nyaya Sutra sets out the valid means of knowledge, the structure of an inference, the rules of definition, the catalogue of fallacies, and the procedure of formal debate — the method the other schools argue in.

3Today

Philosophy, logic and critical thinking Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE (KTPI) · IB · A-level

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Environmental studies

Vrikshayurveda, Jala-vijnana and Ritucharya Evidence incomplete

1Written

Vrikshayurveda Surapala and Parashara — Authors of the Vrikshayurveda and the Krishi Parashara Dates disputed for both texts · disputed

2Taught

Vrikshayurveda, Jala-vijnana and Ritucharya Commentary tradition not yet recorded Between them: plant health and propagation, soils and manure, rainfall and season, irrigation and tanks — with the Arthashastra adding the state chapters on forests, groves and water works.

3Today

Environmental studies Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB · State

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Agriculture

Krishi-vidya Evidence incomplete

1Written

Krishi Parashara Parashara — Author of the Krishi Parashara Date disputed; the tradition is older than the surviving text · disputed

2Taught

Krishi-vidya Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Krishi Parashara covers rainfall measurement and forecasting, soils, seed selection and treatment, ploughing and manure, crop rotation, cattle care and storage — farming written as a taught discipline.

3Today

Agriculture Modern application not yet written Taught in: State boards · vocational

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Art, music, dance and drama

Natya, Sangita, Shilpa and Chitra Evidence incomplete

1Written

Natya Shastra Bharata Muni — Dramaturgical scholar Date disputed; the text is layered · disputed

2Taught

Natya, Sangita, Shilpa and Chitra Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Natya Shastra sets out the structure of drama, stagecraft, acting and gesture, music and rhythm, and rasa theory — the account of aesthetic experience still taught in performance studies.

3Today

Art, music, dance and drama Rasa theory is taught in performance studies departments worldwide. Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IGCSE · IB · State

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Design, technology and engineering

Shilpa Shastra and Vastu Shastra Evidence incomplete

1Written

Manasara The Manasara tradition — Shilpa and vastu compilers; authorship not individual Date disputed; the text is a compilation · disputed

2Taught

Shilpa Shastra and Vastu Shastra Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Manasara sets out units of measurement and proportion, site selection and orientation, foundations, columns and superstructure, town layout and the ordering of a building from plan to finish.

3Today

Design, technology and engineering Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · IGCSE · IB

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Ethics and values education

Dharma and Niti Evidence incomplete

1Written

Bhagavad Gita Vyasa, by tradition — Attributed compiler; authorship traditional, not established Dates disputed across all these texts · disputed

2Taught

Dharma and Niti Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Bhagavad Gita puts duty against consequence in a case where both choices cost something, and the Panchatantra and the Thirukkural teach conduct through story and maxim rather than command.

3Today

Ethics and values education Modern application not yet written Taught in: CBSE · ICSE · IB · State

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Medicine and surgery (MBBS, MS)

Ayurveda — Kaya-chikitsa, Shalya-tantra, Shalakya-tantra Evidence incomplete

1Written

Charaka Samhita Sushruta — Physician and surgical scholar Date disputed; the surviving text is layered and redacted · disputed

2Taught

Ayurveda — Kaya-chikitsa, Shalya-tantra, Shalakya-tantra Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Sushruta Samhita sets out surgical training on models, a described instrument set, procedures including cataract couching and the forehead-flap nose reconstruction, and the management of wounds and fractures.

3Today

Medicine and surgery (MBBS, MS) The forehead-flap nose reconstruction of the Sushruta Samhita was carried out of India and entered world surgery under the name ‘the Indian method’.

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Pharmacy and pharmacology

Dravyaguna and Rasashastra Evidence incomplete

1Written

Bhavaprakasha Nighantu Bhavamishra — Physician and compiler of materia medica Sixteenth century CE · probable

2Taught

Dravyaguna and Rasashastra Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Bhavaprakasha Nighantu classifies drugs by source and action, records their properties, preparation and dosage, and the incompatibilities to avoid — a pharmacopoeia arranged for teaching.

3Today

Pharmacy and pharmacology Modern application not yet written

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: probable

Engineering and architecture

Shilpa and Vastu Shastra Evidence incomplete

1Written

Manasara The Manasara tradition — Shilpa and vastu compilers; authorship not individual Date disputed; the texts are compilations · disputed

2Taught

Shilpa and Vastu Shastra Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Manasara and Mayamata set out measurement and proportion, site selection, foundations, columns and superstructure, and town layout; the Samarangana Sutradhara adds chapters on machines.

3Today

Engineering and architecture The iron pillar at Delhi and India’s large ancient castings are studied by modern metallurgists for their corrosion resistance.

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Law and jurisprudence

Dharmashastra and Vyavahara Evidence incomplete

1Written

Yajnavalkya Smriti Yajnavalkya — Jurist of the Dharmashastra tradition Date disputed · disputed

2Taught

Dharmashastra and Vyavahara Commentary: Mitakshara of Vijnaneshvara The Yajnavalkya Smriti organises law into conduct, procedure and penance, and its procedural section treats courts, evidence and witnesses, debt, contract, partnership and inheritance as a working legal system.

3Today

Law and jurisprudence Modern application not yet written

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Management, public administration and economics

Arthashastra and Rajaniti Evidence incomplete

1Written

Arthashastra Kautilya — Political and economic thinker; minister Date disputed; the received text shows later redaction · disputed

2Taught

Arthashastra and Rajaniti Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Arthashastra treats organisation and delegation, audit and the detection of embezzlement, revenue policy, logistics and stores, famine and crisis administration, and the conduct expected of officials.

3Today

Management, public administration and economics Modern application not yet written

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Linguistics and computational linguistics

Vyakarana, Shiksha, Nirukta Evidence incomplete

1Written

Ashtadhyayi Panini — Grammarian Mid-first millennium BCE · disputed Shalatura, Gandhara

2Taught

Vyakarana, Shiksha, Nirukta Commentary: Mahabhashya of Patanjali The Ashtadhyayi: about four thousand ordered rules with meta-rules governing their application and the resolution of conflicts between them — the formal apparatus modern linguistics and computer science recognise.

3Today

Linguistics and computational linguistics Panini is on linguistics reading lists worldwide and is cited in the history of formal language theory.

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Mathematics and mathematical sciences

Ganita and Chandah-shastra Evidence incomplete

1Written

Aryabhatiya Madhava of Sangamagrama — Mathematician; founder of the Kerala school Fourteenth to fifteenth century CE · probable Kerala

2Taught

Ganita and Chandah-shastra Commentary tradition not yet recorded Gave infinite series for sine, cosine and the arctangent, with the estimates of their error — results transmitted and proved in the Yuktibhasha of the school he founded.

3Today

Mathematics and mathematical sciences The infinite series for sine, cosine and arctangent are stated and proved in the Yuktibhasha of the Kerala school of Madhava.

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: probable

Astronomy and astrophysics

Jyotisha — Ganita and Gola Evidence incomplete

1Written

Surya Siddhanta Bhaskaracharya — Mathematician and astronomer Twelfth century CE · established Vijjadavida

2Taught

Jyotisha — Ganita and Gola Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Siddhanta Shiromani treats planetary theory, spherical astronomy and eclipse computation, with a section on instruments and one on the reasoning behind the methods.

3Today

Astronomy and astrophysics Modern application not yet written

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: probable

Psychology and cognitive science

Samkhya, Yoga and Buddhist Abhidharma Evidence incomplete

1Written

Yoga Sutra Patanjali — Compiler of the Yoga Sutra Date disputed · disputed

2Taught

Samkhya, Yoga and Buddhist Abhidharma Commentary tradition not yet recorded Sets out the states and fluctuations of mind, the obstacles to attention, the stages of concentration and the effects of sustained practice — an account of attention that current meditation and attention research still works from.

3Today

Psychology and cognitive science Meditation and attention research in modern psychology and neuroscience draws directly on these practices.

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Philosophy

The six darshanas and their debate tradition Evidence incomplete

1Written

Nyaya Sutra The six darshanas — Six schools with separate authors; no single figure Dates disputed and differing by school · disputed

2Taught

The six darshanas and their debate tradition Commentary tradition not yet recorded Nyaya and Vaisheshika on knowledge, inference and the categories of nature; Samkhya and Yoga on mind and experience; Mimamsa on interpretation and language; Vedanta on metaphysics — six systems arguing against each other in a shared formal method.

3Today

Philosophy Modern application not yet written

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Performing arts

Natya and Sangita Evidence incomplete

1Written

Natya Shastra Bharata Muni — Dramaturgical scholar Date disputed; the text is layered · disputed

2Taught

Natya and Sangita Commentary tradition not yet recorded The Natya Shastra treats dramatic structure and plot, the stage itself, acting and gesture, costume, music and rhythm, and rasa — the theory of aesthetic response that performance studies still teaches.

3Today

Performing arts Modern application not yet written

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed

Agriculture and environmental science

Krishi-vidya and Vrikshayurveda Evidence incomplete

1Written

Krishi Parashara Parashara — Author of the Krishi Parashara Date disputed; the tradition is older than the surviving text · disputed

2Taught

Krishi-vidya and Vrikshayurveda Commentary tradition not yet recorded Rainfall measurement and seasonal forecasting, soil and manure, seed selection and treatment, ploughing, rotation, cattle management, water and storage — agronomy taught as a system rather than as custom.

3Today

Agriculture and environmental science Modern application not yet written

4Proof

No modern scholarly reference recorded Status: traditionally attributed